III. Long-term experimentation and achievements
Socialism with Chinese characteristics is a result of the long-term experimentation by succeeding generations of CPC members and their continuous efforts to explore and innovate, and it is the most valuable fruit of the CPC and the people in building socialism in China.
The CPC was established with the assistance of the Communist International, also known as the Comintern. The CPC joined the Comintern after the Second CPC National Congress in 1922, becoming a branch of Comintern. The CPC received guidance and support from Comintern and the Soviet Union during its long revolutionary struggle; however, it also suffered severe losses due to undue interference on the latter’s part. This kind of special bond has had a far-reaching impact on the CPC in its development. As a result, in the course of revolution, national building and reform, the CPC had great difficulties in handling its relations with theory, the Soviet Union, the Comintern, the socialist camp, hot wars in the world, the cold-war environment, and other countries. The CPC gradually became indepedent, which guaranteed its future progress.
During the new-democratic revolution period, the CPC led by Mao Zedong, after a lengthy struggle, succeeded in finding a revolutionary path suited to the national conditions of China.
After the founding of the PRC in 1949, the CPC continued to explore new ideas. These efforts yielded great achievements; however, there were also many bitter lessons.
It was precisely because of hardships and struggles that the CPC gradually gained a better understanding of many fundamental issues, including the true nature of Marxism and the right attitude towards Marxism, the essence of socialism and how to build socialism, and the ultimate goal in developing the Party. As a result the CPC succeeded in finding the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
1. The strenuous efforts made by the Party and Mao Zedong provide the political prerequisite and institutional infrastructure for the creation of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
The concept of socialism with Chinese characteristics was first proposed after the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee, and was the direct result of 40 years of reform and opening up. However, we need to acknowledge that the strenuous efforts made by Party members led by Mao Zedong provided the political foundations and institutional infrastructure for the creation of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
After the founding of the PRC in 1949, China built new industrial bases, and its national defense industry grew out of nothing. Other undertakings, including education, science, culture, public health and sports, all witnessed rapid development.
When China first began to apply socialism, it simply copied the institutional structure of the Soviet Union in terms of the economy, politics and culture. However, after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the credos of the Soviet Union and the personality cult surrounding Joseph Stalin were fiercely criticized, and Mao Zedong started to raise questions on how to process the Soviet Union’s experience. In 1956, after carrying out extensive research, Mao Zedong presented a speech entitled On the Ten Major Relationships, proposing for the first time that China should find a development path of socialism adapted to China’s national conditions.
Of course Mao Zedong was not yet able to propose socialism with Chinese characteristics; however many institutional systems that were set up after the founding of the PRC, including the system of people’s congress, multi-party cooperation, political consultation under the leadership of the CPC, the economic system with public ownership and performance-based distribution as the main body, and regional ethnic autonomy, all had distinct Chinese characteristics. Mao Zedong and other Chinese leaders also put forward many valuable ideas and opinions, which served as the wellspring for building socialism with Chinese features and created the political prerequisite and institutional infrastructure for the forming of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the inception of the reform and opening-up policy.
However, traditional socialist concepts and modules still played a dominant role in Mao Zedong’s theorical and practical work; moreover, influenced by some dogmatic assumptions and unrealistic theories from the written works of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Lenin and Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong failed to understand the true nature of socialism and ended up going in the wrong direction. After 1957, Mao’s leftist-inclined deviation went even further, resulting in other serious errors, including the Great Leap Forward, the people’s communes movement, and the Cultural Revolution.
These were serious setbacks with catastrophic consequences; however they served as a warning to the Party and the people. Growing numbers of revolutionaries, veteran cadres, and members of the general public came to recognize the institutional failure and the importance of further reform. It was a lesson learned from negative experience that China must build socialism with Chinese characteristics through deeper reform. Deng Xiaoping once said, “We should negate the Cultural Revolution completely; however, we have to acknowledge its one exceptional merit – it served as a bitter lesson. Without this lesson, we would not have been able to formulate the correct ideological, political and organizational lines, as well as the series of effective policies after the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee.”
By learning these painful lessons, the Party and the people came to realize that without reform, there was no way out. Deng Xiaoping further pointed out that reform and opening up was a crucial move that shaped China’s future. He said, “Our modernization and socialist cause will be ruined if we do not implement reform now.”
2. In the process of reform and opening up, Party members represented by Deng Xiaoping succeeded in inventing the concept of socialism with Chinese characteristics and achieving historical progress.
The victory of smashing the Gang of Four in 1976 rescued the Party and China from a detrimental crisis. The Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee held in 1978 re-established the ideological line of emancipating the mind and seeking truth from facts, made a strategic decision of shifting the focus of the Party and the nation towards socialist modernization, and implemented reform and opening-up policies. This ushered in a new historical change where class struggle was replaced by economic development, and the rigid mindset and closed economy were replaced by comprehensive reform and opening up to the outside world.
The Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee was a milestone event for the Party and the country. It realized a great historical turning point and re-established the correct ideological, political and organizational lines. From that point on China entered a new period of reform and opening up and socialist modernization.
Some of the prioritized tasks were to bring order out of chaos, review major historical issues extensively, and take measures to settle cases in which people had been unjustly condemned during the Cultural Revolution. The Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China was officially approved at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee, negating the Cultural Revolution and the theory of “continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat”.
When the task of bringing order out of chaos was basically completed, the 12th CPC National Congress held in 1982 put forward the thought of “taking our own road and building socialism with Chinese characteristics”, confirming a two-step approach to quadrupling GNP by the end of the century. Later a third step was formulated, proposing to achieve socialist modernization by the middle of the 21st century.
The times called for reform and opening up, and the people called for reform and opening up. China’s reform drive first started at the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee and was fully implemented after the 12th CPC National Congress, from rural reform to urban reform, from economic reform to comprehensive reform in all respects, and from invigorating the domestic economy to comprehensively opening up to the outside world. Reform and opening up became the most distinct feature of the new era.
Reform and opening up was China’s second revolution, and some tough challenges and burning issues were encountered, with the most sensitive question being how to view socialism correctly. Other questions were: Was the rural contract responsibility system a form of socialism or capitalism? Was a farm produce market a form of socialism or capitalism? Was the independent management of state-owned enterprises a form of socialism or revisionism? Did the establishment of a special economic zone mark the return of the foreign consession?
Deng Xiaoping once gave an example about a farmer in Guangdong, who was deemed to be following the socialist path when he only raised three ducks, but capitalist if he raised five ducks. The logic was indeed unacceptable. How could the difference between socialism and capitalism be defined by two ducks?
By analysizing the lessons of history, Deng Xiaoping posed this foundamental question – what exactly socialism was and how should it be built – to all Party members. While leading the CPC and Chinese people in bringing order out of chaos and carrying out reform and opening-up initiatives, Deng Xiaoping helped the people gain a better understanding of socialism.
In September 1982, when delivering the opening speech to the 12th CPC National Congress, Deng Xiaoping proposed the concept of building socialism with Chinese characteristics for the first time.
This concept succeeded in summarizing the CPC’s tested experience in exploring socialism in the past few decades, and pinpointed the missions and tasks of the CPC. It was confirmed that China would build socialism on its own, a kind of socialism that was based on China’s national conditions, that was, socialism with Chinese characteristics.
In accordance with this thinking and direction, the whole Party emancipated the mind, sought truth from facts, vigorously implemented reform and opening up, and gradually formed a set of lines, principles and policies to build socialism with Chinese characteristics. They tackled the basic problems of building, consolidating and developing socialism in China, thus establishing the theory of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Deng Xiiaoping said, “We have set up a series of all-round regulations since reform and opening up, covering the economy, politics, science and technology, education, culture, and military and foreign affairs. These are specific and coherent guidelines and policies, and are all accurately worded.” “It is a Chinese concept.” “In general, it is a development path; we call it building socialism with Chinese characteristics.”
The 12th CPC National Congress held in 1987 systematically expounded on the theory of the primary stage of socialism, clearly formulated the “one central task and two basic points” of the basic line, put forward the concept of “building the socialist theory of Chinese characteristics” for the first time, and summed up 12 main viewpoints, forming the outline of Deng Xiaoping Theory. Since then, the CPC has gradually come to describe Deng Xiaoping’s thoughts as the socialist theory with Chinese characteristics.
After the 13th CPC National Congress, in a complex and difficult domestic and international situation, the Party and the state continued to advance along the road of socialism with Chinese characteristics, realizing social stability, political stability and rapid economic growth. It was time when China’s agriculture and industrial sector, rural and urban areas, and reform and development all witnessed booming development.
In early 1992, in view of the great turmoil in world socialism, Deng Xiaoping delivered a series of important speeches during his Southern Tour. By analyzing the domestic and international situations precisely and by summing up the basic practice and basic experience of the Party since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee, Deng Xiaoping gave clear answers to the major issues that had plagued and constrained China over the years, pointing the direction of China’s development and pushing China’s reform, opening-up and modernization drive into a new phase.
The 14th CPC National Congress held in 1992 summed up the scientific system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, formally establishing the guiding position of this theory in the whole Party, and calling for using this theory to arm the whole Party. The 15th CPC National Congress held in 1997 formally used the concept of Deng Xiaoping Theory, and explicitly took Deng Xiaoping Theory as the guideline of the CPC and wrote it into the Party Constitution.
Deng Xiaoping Theory is a combination of the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism, contemporary Chinese practice, and the characteristics of the times. It is the inheritance and development of Mao Zedong Thought under new historical conditions, marking a new stage of Marxism in China. It is Marxism in contemporary China together with the crystallization of the collective wisdom of the CPC, guiding China’s socialist modernization to further progress.
3. CPC members, with Jiang Zemin as the main representative, further promoted reform, opening up and modernization, and put forward the theory of “Three Represents”, enriching and developing the theory and practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
It was now up to a new generation of Party members to further explore the true value of socialism with Chinese characteristics. At the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th CPC Central Committee, Jiang Zemin was elected general secretary of the CPC, forming a new central leadership group. The new leadership group committed to the basic lines that had been set up at the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee. It defined effective measures to stabilize the domestic situation and break the logjam of international sanctions. These measures included a commitment to clean government, deeper reform, stronger ties between the Party and the people, the development and opening up of Pudong in Shanghai, a 10-year national economic and social development plan, the Eighth Five-year Plan, the revitalization of large and medium-sized state-owned enterprises, and plans to improve China’s agriculture and strengthen rural work. Thanks to these major measures China succeeded in maintaining momentum in its reform and development.
With Deng Xiaoping’s speeches in his Southern Tour opening a new frontier, the 14th CPC National Congress took a series of effective measures to accelerate reform, opening up and economic development, identified reform targets for the socialist market economy, and entered a new stage of reform and opening up. Many institutional reforms in areas such as finance, taxation, foreign trade, foreign exchange, planning, investment, price, circulation, housing, and social security were well underway. To develop a market economy under a socialist framework was an unprecedented breakthrough. The transition from a planned economy to a socialist market economy was a milestone in China’s reform and opening up, creating the opportunity for a substantial acceleration in its economic, political and cultural development.
After the death of Deng Xiaoping, the 14th CPC National Congress continued to uphold the banner of Deng Xiaoping Theory, and China under the leadership of the CPC made innovative attempts to accelerate political, economical and cultural development. In line with the “one country, two systems” principle, the Chinese government resumed the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong and Macao; and by joining the WTO, China further extended the scope of opening up to the outside world.
China’s 13 years of development during that period overlapped with Deng Xiaoping’s era. Generally speaking, during these 13 years the Party and the central government calmly dealt with a series of unexpected international crises which would threat the sovereignty and security of China, overcame difficulties and risks in the political, economic and natural realms, withstood several tests, dealt with all kinds of turmoil, and kept the ship of reform and opening up heading in the right direction. China’s economic aggregate ranked 6th in the world, and a historic leap was made during this period when living standards rose from people being adequately fed and clad to being moderately prosperous. The 16th CPC National Congress confirmed the significance of these 13 years. It was a period when China’s comprehensive national strength improved significantly and people enjoyed considerable benefits, when long-term stability, unity and social harmony were achieved, and when China succeeded in significantly enhancing its international influence and national solidarity.
The CPC, with Jiang Zemin as its main representative, insisted on practical and theoretical innovation, and put forward the theory of “Three Represents”, which helped to create a deeper understanding of what was socialism and how to build socialism, and what kind of party was required and how to build it. By doing so, the Party achieved remarkable achievements and accumulated valuable experience in governing the Party, thus further enriching and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics.
The theories developed and practiced during this stage were initially considered to be a continuation of Deng Xiaoping Theory. Then the 16th CPC National Congress established the Theory of Three Represents, together with Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, as the guides for the Party. The theory of “Three Represents” made significant contribution to the formation and development of socialism with Chinese characteristics and therefore represented the second stage of its development.
In a narrow sense, the theory of “Three Represents” imposes three requirements. Our Party must always represent:
1. the development trend of China’s advanced productive forces
2. the orientation of China’s advanced culture
3. the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people
We often employ its narrow meaning when we refer to it in daily life, as in “We must always ensure the Theory of Three Represents is practiced.”
In a broader sense, this theory includes all the theoretical and practical principles of the third generation of CPC leadership with Jiang Zemin at the core.
The 16th CPC National Congress stated: As a continuation and development of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents reflects new requirements for the work of the Party and state arising from the changes in China and other parts of the world today. It is a powerful theoretical weapon for strengthening and improving Party building and promoting self-improvement and development of socialism in China. It is the crystallization of the CPC’s collective wisdom and a guiding ideology the Party must follow for a long time to come. Persistent implementation of the “Three Represents” is the foundation for building our Party, the cornerstone for its governance and the source of its strength.
4. From the 16th to the 18th National Congresses of the CPC, the CPC Central Committee with Hu Jintao as the general secretary led the people in promptly proposing and implementing the Outlook on Scientific Development, and made further progress in reform, opening up, modernization, and socialism with Chinese characteristics.
After the 16th CPC National Congress, while unswervingly holding high the great banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics and following the guidance of Deng Xiaoping Theory and the Theory of Three Represents, the CPC Central Committee with Hu Jintao as the general secretary built on past successes to further advance the cause with the times. It led the whole Party and the people of the whole country in conforming to the development and changes of the domestic and international situation, grasping and making the most of the important period of strategic opportunities for China’s development, carrying forward the spirit of being realistic and pragmatic, pioneering and enterprising, adhering to innovation in theory and practice, overcoming a series of major challenges, making efforts to promote scientific development and social harmony and improve the socialist market economy, and unswervingly pushing forward the great cause of reform and opening up in the practice of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, so that new advances were made for the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
At the 17th National Congress in 2007, the CPC held higher the great banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics and integrated the latest achievements in adapting Marxism to Chinese conditions into a whole: “Theories of socialism with Chinese characteristics constitute a system of scientific theories including Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and other major strategic thoughts.” It also stressed: “To sum up, the fundamental reason behind all our achievements and progress since the reform and opening-up policy was introduced is that we have blazed a path of socialism with Chinese characteristics and established a system of theories of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”
In the ten years from the 16th to the 18th CPC National Congresses, in the face of changes in the international situation and unprecedentedly fierce competition in comprehensive national strength, the CPC and the state deepened reform and opening up, accelerated the pace of development, and firmly advanced the process of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects by taking the opportunity of its entry into the World Trade Organization to turn pressure into motivation and challenge into opportunity. The Party and the state overcame the sudden SARS epidemic, accurately understood the features of the new stage of development, promptly proposed and fully implemented major strategic thoughts including the Scientific Outlook on Development, and opened up a broad space for economic and social development. After 2008, facing the international financial crisis, the CPC made scientific judgment and resolute decisions and took a series of major measures, becoming the first in the world in realizing economic stabilization and recovery, and accumulating important experience in effectively responding to external economic risks and maintaining stable and rapid economic development. China successfully hosted the Beijing 2008 Olympics, Paralympics and Shanghai World Expo, and won major victories against serious natural disasters such as the Wenchuan Earthquake and achieved quick post-disaster recovery and reconstruction, and properly handled a series of major emergencies. China consolidated and advanced the overall situation of reform, opening up and socialist modernization, lifted its international status, and demonstrated the superiority and vitality of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
New historic successes in the ten years laid a solid foundation for completing the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects. China’s economy has risen from the sixth to the second place in the world. The country has undergone new historic changes: Its productive forces and economic, scientific and technological strength have increased considerably; the people’s living standards, individual income and social security have improved significantly; and its overall national strength and international competitiveness and influence have been enhanced substantially. As the report to the 18th CPC National Congress pointed out: During this period, China has seen continuous economic development, steady improvement in democracy, and increasing cultural prosperity and social stability, and we have worked hard to ensure and improve the people’s wellbeing and brought them more benefits than ever before.
In these ten years, the Chinese Communists, mainly represented by Hu Jintao, followed Deng Xiaoping Theory and the Theory of Three Represents and, according to the new development requirements, understood and answered the major questions of what kind of development China should achieve in a new environment and how the country should achieve it, thus bringing into being the Scientific Outlook on Development which is people-oriented, comprehensive, balanced and sustainable.
There is an annual survey of the most influential catchphrase in China every year. “Unemployment” was chosen for the year 1950; “supporting agriculture” for 1960; “Prince Norodom Sihanouk” for 1970;“decade-long catastrophe” for 1980; “Asian Games” for 1990; “the 21st century” for 2000; the “Three Represents” for 2001; “the 16th CPC National Congress” for 2002; SARS for 2003; and the “Scientific Outlook on Development” for 2004. In the top ten Chinese catchphrases in 2004, the “Scientific Outlook on Development” ranked first, followed by“governing capacity”, the “Athens Olympics”, “bird flu”, “Chinese Super League”, “Liu Xiang”, among others.
Why was the Scientific Outlook on Development proposed?
Looking at history as a graph, China’s development since reform and opening up undoubtedly makes a rapidly rising curve (not a straight line). And China’s achievements have been universally recognized. This shows that through reform and opening up, we can promote the rapid development of productive forces. However, development always has special features at a certain stage. Different stages of development pose different challenges. In the stage of poverty, basic development was the biggest challenge; but as we develop, we encounter new challenges such as resource and energy management, the eco-environment, interest relationships, and the international environment.
Examining previous approaches to development, we find that although there were constant, profound qualitative changes, most changes were still quantitative, including the expansion of human resources, capital investment, and the market system, and expansion from the domestic market to foreign countries. When such quantitative expansions reached a certain stage and a certain extent, we would inevitably encounter new environmental restraints. At each new historical starting point, it becomes more and more difficult to develop through quantitative expansion.
Therefore, the Scientific Outlook on Development is a form of strategic thinking, countermeasure and requirement for us to meet new challenges. It embodies the hard work of several generations of Chinese Communists leading the people in building socialism with Chinese characteristics. It also reflects the experience and lessons China has learned from the development of other countries. It is an essential requirement for developing with the times.
The Scientific Outlook on Development was defined in the report to the 17th CPC National Congress: “The Scientific Outlook on Development takes development as its essence, putting people first as its core, comprehensive, balanced and sustainable development as its basic requirement, and overall consideration as its fundamental approach.” This incisive summarization does not cover the entire content of the theory, but it reveals the most important theoretical essence.
The Scientific Outlook on Development is of great significance to the development of China. As the revised Constitution of the CPC after the 18th National Congress states: The Scientific Outlook on Development is a scientific theory that continues in congruence with Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, and the Theory of Three Represents, while advancing with the times. It fully embodies the Marxist worldview and methodology on development and represents a major achievement in adapting Marxism to the Chinese context. It is a crystallization of the collective wisdom of the Communist Party of China and a guiding ideology that must be upheld in the long term in developing socialism with Chinese characteristics.
5. Since the 18th CPC National Congress, the CPC Central Committee with Xi Jinping at its core has been demonstrating new characteristics and making new achievements in national governance, and has further enriched and developed socialism with Chinese characteristics, advancing it into a new era.
Since the 18th CPC National Congress, the CPC Central Committee with Xi Jinping at its core has been uniting and leading all Chinese people in holding high the great banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics, keeping in mind both our internal and international imperatives, ensuring coordinated implementation of the Four-pronged Comprehensive Strategy (completing the building of a society which is moderately prosperous in all respects, comprehensively expanding in-depth reform, comprehensively promoting law-based governance, and comprehensively enforcing strict Party self-governance), and promoting sustained and sound economic development. In so doing, it has opened up a broader prospect for the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
In the five years that followed, the CPC developed new ideas, new thinking, and new strategies, adopted a raft of major principles and policies, launched a host of major initiatives, and pushed ahead with many major tasks. According to the report to its 19th National Congress, the CPC solved many tough problems that had existed for a long time, and accomplished many things that never got done. In particular, it made sweeping efforts to strengthen the Party’s leadership and Party building, and ensured that political responsibility for governance over the Party is fulfilled at each level of the Party organization. It adopted the eight-point decision on improving Party and government conduct and ensured that no place has been out of bounds, no ground left unturned, and no tolerance shown in the fight against corruption. The Party remained unswerving in carrying out anti-corruption campaigns and punishing corrupt officials.
China’s economy entered the phase known as the new normal, with GDP growing from 54 trillion yuan to 80 trillion yuan, ranking second in the world. In a series of important speeches, Chinese President Xi Jinping responded, from different perspectives, to the questions of how to govern the country in a new historical context, and how to lead it to the future. In these speeches, Xi’s plans, ideas, philosophy and blueprints for governing the country were gradually revealed. These speeches also gradually defined the fundamental path of China’s development from the 18th CPC National Congress, bringing great changes to the Party and the country and having a huge international influence. The important speeches of Xi Jinping and the new ideas, new thoughts and new strategies for national governance embodied in them have further enriched the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the guiding principles of the Communist Party of China.
It was emphasized at the 19th CPC National Congress that the achievements of the previous five years had touched every area and broken new ground, and that the changes in China over the past five years had been profound and fundamental. With decades of hard work, socialism with Chinese characteristics had crossed the threshold into a new era.
Looking back on the establishment and development of socialism with Chinese characteristics, Xi Jinping summarized that while socialism with Chinese characteristics was pioneered in the era of reform and opening up, it was the result of the long-term struggle of our Party led by several generations of central leadership which had been uniting and leading the entire Party and all Chinese people through hardships and unremitting explorations.